m. a short javelin or arrow thrown from the hand or shot through a tube (others"a stone fastened to a string"or"a kind of sling for throwing stones") (varia lectiobhindapāla-, bhiṇḍimālā-, bhindomāla-, bhindimāla-or laka-, bhindumāla-).
m.idem or '([ ]) m.idem or '([ ]) m.idem or 'm.idem or 'm. a weight (= 32 guñjā-s or berries of Abrus precatorius, or = 64 such guñjā-s with physicians;= 6 māṣa-s of 7 or 8 guñjā-s each ) ' ' ' '
n. a collection of three or four ([ ]) or five ([ ]) stanzas in which the government of verb and noun is carried throughout (contrary to the practice of closing the sense with each verse)
m. (plural) erection or bristling of the hairs of the body (considered to be occasioned by delight or rapture rather than by fear) (also n.but mostly occurring in the beginning of a compound and in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound' with f(ā-).)
n.Name of various works (especially of a kāvya-, attributed to kālidāsa-, and of a rhetoricwork by rudraṭa- or rudra-bhaṭṭa- [12th or 13th century A.D.] corresponding in its contents to the 3rd chapter of the sāhitya-darpaṇa-).
m. (n.) a mark on the forehead (made with coloured earths, sandal-wood, or unguents, either as an ornament or a sectarial distinction) (in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound'f(ā-)., ) etc.
अलकः [अल-क्वुन्, अलति भूषयति मुखम्] 1 A curl lock of hair, hair in general; ललाटिकाचन्दनधूसरालका Ku.5. 55; अस्पृष्टालकवेष्टनौ R.1,42;4.54; अलकभङ्गतां गतः K.4; अलके बालकुन्दानुविद्धम् Me.67 (the word is n. also, as appears from a quotation of Malli. : स्वभाववक्राण्यलकानि तासाम्). -2 Curls on the fore-head; ...अलकः पुरोलम्बनकुन्तले Nm. -3 Saffron besmeared on the body. -4 mad dog (for अलर्क). -का A girl from eight to ten years of age. -2 N. of the capital of Kubera (situated on a peak of the Himālaya above the peak of Meru, inhabited also by Śiva), and of the lord of the Yakśas; अलकामतिवाह्यैव Ku.6.37; विभाति यस्यां ललितालकायां मनोहरा वैश्रवणस्य लक्ष्मीः Bv.2.1; गन्तव्या ते वसतिरलका नाम यक्षेश्वराणाम् Me.7. -Comp. -अधिपः, -पतिः, -ईश्वरः 'lord of Alakā', N. of Kubera; अत्यजीवदमरालके- श्वरौ R.19.15. -अन्तः the end of a curl or ringlet; Śi. 4.9; उद्गृह
आमलकः की 1 The tree, Emblic Myrobalan, Emblica Officinalis Gaertn (Mar. आंवळा). -2 N. of another tree (वासक). -कम् Fruit of the Emblic Myrobalan; बदरामलकाम्रदाडिमानाम् Bv.2.8.
उद्दालकः = 1 उद्दाल q. v. -2 N. of a sage उद्दालक आरुणिः Bṛi. Up.3.7.1. -कम् A kind of honey. -Comp. -पुष्पभञ्जिका [उद्दालकानां पुष्पाणि भज्यन्ते यत्र क्रीडायां ण्वुल्] a sort of game played by the people in the eastern districts (in which Uddālaka flowers are broken or crushed).
काकलकः 1 The top of the windpipe. लौकिकमास्यं ओष्ठात्प्रभृति प्राक् काकलकात् Mbh. on P.I.1.9. -2 The thyroid cartilage. -कः 1 An ornament of the neck. -2 A kind of rice.
कालक a. Black, dark-blue. -कः 1 A mole, freckle, mark. -3 A water-snake. -3 The black part of the eye. -4 A kind of grain. -का Ved. 1 A kind of bird. -2 A daughter of Dakṣa. -कम् 1 The liver. -2 An unknown quantity (in Alg.). -Comp. -आचार्यः N. of a Jaina teacher and astronomer.
कुलक a. Of good family, of good birth. -कः 1 The chief of a guild. -2 Any artisan of eminent birth. -3 An ant-hill. -कम् 1 A collection, multitude. रोमपुलककुलकः Bhāg.5.7.12. -2 A number of verses in grammatical connection; (the number of verses ranging from 5 to 15 and the whole forming one sentence); e. g. see Śi.1.4-1, R.1.5-9; so Ku.1.1-16. -3 A kind of prose composition with few compounds.
गोलकः [गुड् ण्वुल डस्य लः] 1 A ball, globe; भूगोलक- विशेषं नामरूपमानलक्षणतो व्याख्यास्यामः Bhāg.5.16.4. -2 A wooden ball for playing with. -3 A globular waterjar. -4 A widow's bastard; परदारेषु जायेते द्वौ सुतौ कुण्ड- गोलकौ । पत्यौ जीवति कुण्डः स्यान्मृते भर्तरि गोलकः ॥ Ms.3.174. -5 A conjunction of six or more planets in one sign. -6 Glans penis. -7 Molasses. -8 Gum myrrh.
जालकम् [जालमिव कायति कै-क] 1 A net. -2 A multitude, collection; बद्धं कर्णशिरीषरोधि वदने घर्माम्भसां जालकम् Ś.1.3; R.9.68. -3 A lattice, window; जालकमुखोप गतान् Śi.9.39; आननविलग्नजालकम् R.9.68. -4 A bud, an unblown flower; अभिनवैर्जालकैर्मालतीनाम् Me.98; so यूथिकाजालकानि 26. -5 A kind of ornament (worn in the hair); तिलकजालकजालकमौक्तिकैः R.9.44 (आभरणविशेषः). -6 A nest. -7 Illusion, deception. -8 A plantain or the fruit. -9 Pride. -1 A kind of tree; माधवीजालकादिभिः Bhāg.8.2.19. -कः 1 A window, lattice. -2 A fowler. -Comp. -मालिन् a. veiled.
तालकम् 1 Yellow orpiment. -2 A fragrant earth. -3 A bolt, latch. -की The vinous exudation of the palm, toddy. -Comp. -आभ a. green. (-भः) the green colour.
तिलकः [तिल्-क्वुन्, तिल इवार्थे स्वल्पे वा कन् वा] 1 A species of tree with beautiful flowers; Rām.2.94.9; आक्रान्ता तिलकक्रियापि तिलकैर्लीनद्विरेफाञ्जनैः M.3,5; न खलु शोभयति स्म वनस्थलीं न तिलकस्तिलकः प्रमदामिव R.9.41. Kālidāsa describes the beauty of this tree as being akin to that of the saffron-mark on the forehead of a woman. The name suggests a relation to tila. the sesame plant, Sesamum indicum Linn. Now this plant has got flowers that have got a very pretty appearance. It is a shrub and not a tree. It grows four to five feet in height. Its flower has five petals. The lower petal is the longest. In wild variety there is a promiment spot on the longest petal which is highly suggestive of the saffron-mark on the forehead of a woman. -2 A freckle or natural mark under the skin. -3 The sesamum tree. -कः, -कम् 1 A mark made with sandalwood or unguents &c.; मुखे मधुश्री- स्तिलकं प्रकाश्य Ku.3.3; कस्तूरिकातिलकमालि विधाय सायम् Bv.2.4;1.121. -2 The ornament of anything (used at the end of comp. in the sense of 'best', 'chief' or 'distinguished'); कुल˚; जीवलोक˚ Māl.9.21; यस्य न विपदि विषादः संपदि हर्षो रणे न भीरुत्वम् । तं भुवनत्रयतिलकं जनयति जननी सुतं विरलम् ॥ Pt.1.15. -3 The burden of a song (ध्रुवक). -का A kind of necklace. -कम् 1 The bladder. -2 The right lung. -3 A kind of salt. -4 A kind of disease, the appearance of dark spots on the skin without any inflammation. -5 Alliteration. -Comp. -आश्रयः the forehead.
नलकम् 1 Any long bone of the body; Mv.1.35; जङ्घानलकमुदयिनीर्मज्जधाराः पिबन्ति Māl.5.17. -2 The radius of the arm. -3 A particular ornament for the nose.
नीलकम् 1 Black salt. -2 Blue steel. -3 Blue vitriol. -कः 1 A dark-coloured horse. -2 (In alg.) The third unknown quantity (corresponding to z of European Algebra).
पालकः [पाल्-ण्वुल्] 1 A guardian, protector. -2 A prince, king, ruler, sovereign. -3 A groom, horsekeeper. -4 A horse. -5 The Chitraka tree. -6 A fosterfather. -7 Protection. -8 One who maintains or observes (as a promise &c). -कम् A spittoon.
पुलकः 1 Erection or bristling of the hairs of the body, a thrill (of joy or fear), horripilation; चारु चुचुम्ब नितम्बवती दयितं पुलकैरनुकूले Gīt.1; मृगमदतिलकं लिखति सपुलकं मृगमिव रजनीकरे 7; Amaru.59,82. -2 A kind of stone or gem; Kau. A.2.11.29. -3 A flaw or defect in a gem. -4 A kind of mineral. -5 A ball of food with which elephants are fed (गजान्नपिण्ड). -6 Yellow orpiment, a dot of the same; रक्तोज्ज्वलांशुकवृते द्विरदस्य कुम्भे जाम्बूनदेन रचितः पुलको यथैव Abhiṣeka.4.23. -7 A wine-glass. -8 A species of mustard. -9 See पुलाकः (1); अश्राद्धेयानि धान्यानि कोद्रवाः पुलकास्तथा Mb.13.91.38 (com. पुलकाः असंपूर्णतण्डुलयुक्तधान्यानि). -1 A bunch. -Comp. -अङ्गः the noose of Varuṇa. -आलयः an epithet of Kubera. -उद्गमः erection of the hairs of the body, horripilation.
फलकम् 1 A board, plank, slab, tablet; कालः काल्या भुवनफलके क्रीडति प्राणिशारैः Bh.3.39; द्यूत˚, चित्र˚ &c. -2 Any flat surface; चुम्ब्यमानकपोलफलकाम् K.218; धृत- मुग्धगण्डफलकैर्विबभुः Śi.9.47,37; cf. तट. -3 A shield; Rām.1. -4 A slab, tablet, leaf or page for writing upon. -5 The buttocks, hips. -6 The palm of the hand. -7 Fruit, result, consequence. -8 Profit, gain. -9 Menstruation. -1 The head of an arrow. -11 The pericarp of a lotus. -12 A broad and flat bone (of the forehead). -13 A wooden seat; तवार्हते तु फलकं कूर्चं वा$प्यथवा बृसी Mb.5.35.15. -14 Bark (as material for clothes). -Comp. -परिधानम् putting on a bark-garment. -पुरम् N. of a town in the east of India; P. VI.2.11; cf. फलपुर. -पाणि a. armed with a shield (as a warrior). -यन्त्रम् an astronomical instrument invented by Bhāskarāchārya. -सक्थ a. having a thigh as broad as a board.
बालक a. (-लिका f.) [बाल स्वार्थे क] 1 Childlike, young, not yet fullgrown. -2 Ignorant. -कः 1 A child, boy. -2 A minor (In law). -3 A finger-ring. -4 A fool or blockhead. -5 A bracelet. -6 The tail of a horse or elephant. -7 Hair. -8 A young elephant (five years old); निर्धूतवीतमपि बालकमुल्ललन्तम् Śi.5.47. See बाल (8). -कम् 1 A finger-ring. -2 A bracelet. -Comp. -प्रिय a. fond of children. (-या) colocynth or plantain. -हत्या infanticide.
बाहुलकम् 1 Manifoldness. -2 The diverse or interminable applicability of a rule, of meanings or of forms; a term frequently used in grammar; बाहुलका- च्छन्दसि.
मण्डलकम् 1 A circle. -2 A disc. -3 A district, province. -4 A group, collection. -5 A circular array of troops. -6 White leprosy with round spots. -7 A mirror. -8 A kind of pose of an archer. -9 A circle with lines drawn for magical incantations. -कः A dog.
मल्लकः 1 A lamp-stand. -2 An oil-vessel, a lampvesssel. -3 A lamp. -4 A cup made out of a cocoanut shell. -5 A tooth. -6 A kind of jasmine. -7 A bowl; मोदकमल्लकं निक्षिप्य Pratijñā. Y.3.
मातुलकः 1 A meternal uncle (as a term of endearment). -2 The thorn-apple.
मातुला mātulā मातुलानी mātulānī मातुली mātulī
मातुला मातुलानी मातुली 1 The wife of a maternal uncle; Ms.2.131; Y.3.232; Bhāg.1.14.27. -2 Hemp; जातीफलं मातुलानी महिफेनं च पत्रकम् Śiva B.3.15.
मालकः 1 The Nimba tree. -2 A wood near a village. -3 A pot made of a cocoa-nut shell. -4 An arbour, bower. -का, -कम् 1 A garland. -2 The land-growing lotus; L. D. B.
मूलक a. 1 (At the end of comp.) Rooted in, springing from, founded or based on; भ्रान्तिमूलक 'based on error.' -2 Born under the constellation Mūla; P.IV. 3.28. -कः, -कम् 1 A radish. -2 An esculent root. -3 A sort of yam. -कः A kind of poison. -Comp. -पणः a handful of radishes &c. (for sale). -पोतिका a radish.
रल्लकः 1 A woollen cloth, blanket. -2 An eye-lash; युवतिरल्लकभल्लसमाहतो भवति को न युवा गतचेतनः; सीतारल्लकभल्लभग्न- हृदयः स्वस्थो न लङ्केश्वरः Hanūmannāṭakam. -3 A kind of deer.
ad. fearlessly; -sabda, m. slander; corrupt form, ungrammatical lan guage; -sasi-tilaka, a. lacking a moon as forehead mark; -sastra, a. weaponless; -sû la, a. spearless; -soka,a. free from sorrow.
m. n. camphor; -keli, m. N. of a flamingo; -gaura, n. N. of a lake (whitish like camphor); -tilaka, m. N. of an elephant; -pata, m. N. of a dyer; -mañ- garî, f. N. of a princess; -flamingo; -drama;-maya, a. consisting of or like camphor; -vi lâsa, m. N.; -saras, n. N. of a lake.
m. small hunting leopard (Cheeta); n. mark (--°ree;, a. characterised by); picture, painting; -kara, m. painter (a mixed caste); -karman, n. painting; picture; adornment (Pr.); -kûta, m. hill of pleasure; (Bright-peak), N. of a mountain (in Bun delkund, now Kitrakote); N. of a town; -krit, m. painter; -kritya, n. painting; -ga, a., -gata, pp. (belonging to a picture), painted; -gupta, m. N. of a recorder of human actions in Yama's realm; -griha, n. apartment adorned with pictures; -grâvan, a. stony; -grîva, m. Spotted-neck, N. of a pigeon king; -nyasta, pp. put on canvas, painted; -paksha, m. (spotted-wing), kind of pigeon; N. of a demon causing headache; -pata, m. picture; -patta, m. id.: -gata, pp. painted; -putrikâ, f. female portrait; -phalaka, picture-panel, painting; (á)-bhânu, a. shining brightly; m. fire, Agni; -bhâshya, n. eloquence; -bhitti,f. painted wall, wall-painting; -mriga, m. spotted antelope.
m. N. of an ancient sage and of a king of Ayodhyâ, raised to the stars as the Southern Cross: -tilaka, a. adorned with the Southern Cross: â dis, f.=the South; -satá, a. 103; 300; 300th; consisting of 300; n. 300; -sâkha, a. having three branches; -sikha, a. three-crested, three-pronged, shap ed like a trident; n. trident; -sikhara, a. three-peaked; -siras, a. three-headed; three-peaked; m. N. of aRishi with the patrony mic Tvâshtra, reputed author of RV. X, viii; N. of a Râkshasa slain by Râma; -sîrsha, -sîr shán, a. three-headed; -sûla, n. trident; a. wielding the trident (Siva).
a. holding a staff in one's hand; m. policeman; ep. of Yama; -pâta, m. (descent of the rod), punishment, chastisement; -pâtana, n. castigation; -pâ rushya, n. assault: du. bodily chastisement and admonition; -pâla, m. guardian of jus tice, judge: -tâ, f. abst. n.; -pâláka, m. guardian of justice, judge; -pâsaka, m. policeman, watchman; -pranâma, m. prostration at full length like a staff; -pradâna,n. presentation of the staff (at investiture); -bhaya, n. fear of the rod; -bhâg, a. liable to punishment; -bhrit, a. wielding the rod; m. ep. of Yama; -mukhya, m. leader of an army.
f. access: -m gam, become the occasion of (g.) to (g.); -darsin, m. jani tor, porter; -nâyaka, m. janitor, chamber lain; -pa, m. janitor; -paksha, m. fold of a door; door: -ka, n. id.: -ubhayatas ka dvâ rapakshakayoh, on both sides of the door: -patta, m. id.; -pati, m. janitor, chamberlain; -pâla, m. door-keeper: -ka, m., i-kâ, f. id.; -pidhâna, n. door-bolt; -phalaka, n. fold of a door; -bâhu, m. door-post; -rakshin, m. door-keeper; -vamsa, m. lintel of a door; -vat, a. many-gated: -î, f. N. of Krishna's residence; -stha, a. standing at the door or gate; m. janitor.
a. free from anxiety, fearless, unhesitating; having nothing to fear from (--°ree;); that need cause no anxiety: -m or °ree;--, calmly, without hesitation, without more ado;-sa&ndot;kâ, f. absence of timidity: in. without hesitation; -sa&ndot;kita, pp. free from anxiety; causing no anxiety; fearless, unhesitating; -satru, a. free from foes; -sabda, a. silent; noiseless, mute: °ree;--, silently: -stimita, pp. noiseless and still; -sarana, a. unprotected; -salâka, a. free from tall grass; -salya, a. free from an arrow: -m, ad. pain lessly, without a struggle, willingly; -sastra, a. unarmed; -sâkha, a. branchless: -tâ, f.branchlessness.
a. delivered from the Pândavas; -pâda-ka, a. accomplishing; -pâdana, n. accomplishment; -pâdya, fp. to be accomplished, -brought about: -½abda sahasra, full millennium; -pâpa,a. sinless; -pâlaka, a. having no guardian; -pîdana, n. pressure; -putra, a. sonless, childless; -pu rusha, a. having no males; -pulâka, a. free from shrivelled grain: î-kri, free from shrivelled grain; -pesha, m. impact; clash ing sound; -paurusha½âmarsha, a. desti tute of manliness and anger; -prakâra-ka, a. free from specifications; -prakâsa, a. dark; -pragña, a. witless, stupid; -pratâpa, a. destitute of dignity; -pratikriya, a. not to be saved, past help: -tâ, f. abst. n.; -prati graha, a. accepting no gifts: -tâ, f. abst. n.; -pratigha, a. unobstructed; -pratipaksha, a. having no adversary: -tâ, f., -tva, n. abst. n.; -pratibandha, a. free from ob stacles; unobjectionable; -pratîkâra, a. that cannot be helped; irremediable; unhindered; -pratyâsa, a. having given up all hope of (lc. or upari): î-bhu, lose all hope of (prati); -pratyûha, a. free from obstacles: -m, ad. without hindrance; -pradesa, a. having no fixed place; -prapañka, a. unevolved, exempt from multiformity: -sad-âtman, a. having real existence without being evolved; -pra bha, a. deprived of radiance or splendour: -tâ, f., -tva, n. abst. n.; -prabhâva, a. powerless: -tva, n. -ness; -pramâna-ka, a. supported by no authority; -prayogana, a. disinterested (spectator); useless: -m, ad. uselessly; needless, uncalled for; -pravâni, a. fresh from the loom; quite new.
n. playing for (--°ree;); -pat ana, n. flying about, hovering; -pantha-ka, m. (obstructor of one's path), adversary, enemy; -pantha-ya, den. P. oppose, resist (ac.); -panthín, a. besetting one'spath; m. waylayer, opponent, enemy; -panthî-bhû, become the adversary of, oppose (g.); -pava na, n. cleansing (of grain), winnowing; flail; -pasavya, a. relating to the sacrificial animal; -pâka, m. becoming fully cooked; digestion; ripening; maturity; perfection; consequence, effect; fulness, fulfilment (of time): -tas, ab. in consequence of; -pâkana, a. cooking fully; maturing; -pâkayitri, a. id.; -pâtala, a. very pale-red; -pât&ibrevcirc;, f. succession; -pâtha, m. complete enumeration: in. (know) com pletely; -p&asharp;na, n. hiding-place; -pândiman, m. extreme whiteness; -pându, a. very white or pale: -ra, a. very white; -pârsva, a.being at the side, close at hand: -vartin, a. remain ing at one's side, standing beside (g.); -pâ laka, a. protecting; maintaining; -pâlana, n. protection; maintenance; nurture: â, f. protection, nurture, î-ya, fp. to be guarded; -maintained; -pâlya, fp. to be protected; -maintained or observed; -pi&ndot;gî-kri, colour deep red-brown; -piñga, a. full of (in.); -piñg ara, a. brownish-red, orange-coloured; -pi pâlayishâ, f. desire to maintain; -pîdana, n. squeezing out; injuring, prejudicing (--°ree;); -pushta-tâ, f. being nourished by, feeding on (--°ree;); -pûti, f. complete purification; -pûra ka, a. fulfilling; bestowing abundance; -pûr ana, n. filling; completion; -pûrin, a. be stowing abundantly; -pûrna, pp. (√ 1. pri) filled with (--°ree;); -pûrnendu, m. full moon; -pûrti, f. becoming full of (--°ree;); completion; -pelava, a. very delicate, tiny; -pothaka, a.furthering, confirming; -poshanîya, fp. to be cherished; -prasna, m. enquiry, after (--°ree;); -prâpti, fp. obtainment; -prepsu, des. a. wishing to reach or obtain, seeking after, de siring (ac.); -plavá, a. running to and fro;m. fluctuation; -pluta, pp. (√ plu) over whelmed; bathed (in tears: --°ree;).
m. earthquake; -kshit, a. inhabiting the earth; earth-ruling; m. prince, king; -kandra, m. N. of a prince of Trigarta; -tala, n. surface of the earth, ground; also=world, infernal regions (bot tom of the earth); -danda-pâla, m. chief constable of the country: -tâ, f. office of --; -devî, f. N.; -pati, m. lord of the earth, prince, king; -paripâlaka, m. prince, king; -pâla: -ka, m. keeper of the earth, king, sovereign; -bhug, m. enjoyer of the earth, prince, king; -bhugamga, m. spouse of the earth, prince, king; -bhrit, m. support of the earth, mountain; -máya, formed of earth, earthen; -râgya, n. dominion over the land, sovereignty; -ruha, m. (growing out of the earth), plant, tree; -½îsa, -½îsvara, m. lord of the earth, prince, king; -½âpîda, m. N. of two princes of Cashmere.
n. destruction; -kshaya, m. id. ruin, end; -ksharana, n. flowing; -kshâlaka, a. washing; m. washer;-kshâlana, a. performing frequent ablutions; -kshâlana, a. performing frequentablutions; n. washing, -off, cleansing, purifying; water for washing; means of purifying; -kshîna, pp. √ kshi; -kshepa, m. cast, throw; throwing or scattering upon; setting down (of the feet, pāda-, pl.=steps); interpolation; sum deposited by each member of a commercial company; -kshepana, n. sprinkling or pouring upon; throwing into, -upon (--°ree;); fixing (of a price, --°ree;); -kshepin, a throwing or placing upon (--°ree;); -ksheptavya, pp. to be thrown into (lc.); -thrown or scattered on (lc.); -kshepya, pp. to be put on (ornament).
a. inflamed (med.); -pak sha, m. tip of a wing; -pañka, m. expansion, prolixity, amplification, of (g. or --°ree;); phe nomenon; manifestation or form of (g.); phenomenal world (ph.); mutual flattery (rh.); ludicrous dialogue (dr.): in. or -tas, ad. in detail, -pañka-ka, a. (ikâ) multiply ing (--°ree;); amplifying, explaining in detail; -pañkana, n. detailed or prolix account; -pañka-buddhi, a. crafty, wily; -pañka-ya,den. describe or explain in detail; represent in a false light; -pañka-vakana, n. prolix discourse; -paná, m. trade, barter, purchase; -patana, n. flying away; falling down, from (ab. or --°ree;), into (lc. or --°ree;); -patti, f.pious resignation; (á)-patha, m. onward way, journey; road; -pathín, a. wandering; -pad, f. 1. road; 2. (prá-) fore part of the foot; (prá) pada, n. fore part or tip of the foot; -pada na, n. entry, into (--°ree;); -padam, ad. reciting in such a manner as to cut up verses into sec tions of an equal number of syllables and to interpose between them formulae contain ing the word prapadye (Br.); -panna, pp. (√ pad) reached, arrived; attained, obtained: -pâla, m. protector of suppliants (Krishna); -palâyana, n. flight; -palâyin, a. fleeing, fugitive; -p&asharp;, f. water-tank, reservoir, well; water-hut for travellers; affluent (of a tank etc.); -pâka, m.ripening (of an ulcer etc.); digestion; -pâtha: -ka, m. lesson (subsection in books); -pâni, m. fore-arm: -ka, m. id.; -pându, a. very white: -ra, a. id.; -pâta, m. kind of flight; leaping forward; hasten ing away; fall, from (ab. or --°ree;), into (lc. or --°ree;); falling out (of the hair); effusion (of semen); fall (of a glance on anything); steep declivity, precipice; -pâtana, n. felling, cast ing down; directing or causing (the eye) to alight (--°ree;);-pâna, n. drinking; -pâ-pâlikâ, -pâ-pâlî, f. female watcher of a water-tank, well, or water-hut; -pâ-mandapa, m. water hut (for travellers); -pâlaka, m. protector, guardian; -pâlana, n. guarding, protecting.
m. sexual love, passion, lust; m. god of love, Kâma; N.; a plant: -tantra, n. doctrine of sexual love; -damsh- trâ, f. N. of a princess; -damana, m. van quisher of Kâma, ep. of Siva; -dahana,m. burner of Kâma, ep. of Siva; -dvish, m. enemy of Kâma, ep. of Siva; -pâla, m. N. of a prince, the reputed author of various works; -pura, m. N. of a city; -prabhâ, f. N. of a fairy; -mañkukâ, f. N. of a daughter of Madanavega; -mañgarî, f. N.; -maya, a. swayed by love; -maha, m., -mahâ½utsava, m. great festival in honour of Kâma; -mâlâ, f. N.; -mâlinî, f. N.; -mohana, m. con founder of Kâma, ep. of Krishna; -yashti ketu, m. kind of flag; -râga, m. N.; -ripu, m. foe of Kâma, ep. of Siva; -lekhâ, f. love letter; N.; -vega, N. of a prince of the fairies; -salâkâ, f. hooded crow; -sundarî, f. N.; -senâ, f. N.
n., C. also m., dirt, filth, impurity (also morally); bodily secretion; n. kind of base metal, brass (?): -karshana, a. remov ing dirt; -gñu, a. dirty-kneed; -tva, n. being a stain; -dâyaka, a. attaching a stigma to any one; -digdha½a&ndot;ga, a. (î) having the body soiled with mire; -pa&ndot;ka½anulipta½a&ndot; ga, a. (î) having the body besmeared with dirt and mire; -pa&ndot;kin, a. covered with dirt and mire; -mallaka, n. loin-cloth; -mâsa, m. (impure month, no religious rites being performed in it), intercalary month; -mûtra-parityâga, m. evacuation of excre ment and urine.
m. N. of a poet and celebrated commentator (prob. fourteenth or fifteenth century), called Kolâkala, who wrote commentaries on Kâlidâsa's three works Raghuvamsa, Kumârasambhava, and Me ghadûta, as well as the Kirâtârgunîya and Sisupâlavadha.
m. cloth of Yama (on which the god of death and the tortures of hell are depicted): i-ka, m. man who car ries about a Yama cloth; -pada, n. repeated word; -pâlaka, m. Yama's watchman;-pâ la-purusha, m. id.; -purusha, m. id.; -mandira, n. Yama's abode; -mârga, m. Yama's path; -yâga, m. kind of Yâgyâ; -râga, m. N.; -râgan, m. king Yama; (á) râgan, a. having Yama as a king; m. subject of Yama; -r&asharp;gya, n. Yama's rule; -râshtra, n. Yama's realm.
] a. (v-&isharp;) speed ing, fleet (V.); m. courser (V.); N. of an ancient king, ancestor of Râma: pl. descend ants of Raghu; -tilaka, m. ep. of Râma; -drú, a. running swiftly (RV.); -nandana, m. descendant of Raghu, ep. of Râma; -nâ tha, m. ep. of Râma; -pati, m. lord of the Raghus, ep. of Râma; -pátvan, a. flying swiftly (RV.); -vamsa, m. Raghu's race: T. of a well-known poem by Kâlidâsa: -samgîv anî, f. T. of Mallinâtha's commentary on the Raghuvamsa; -shyád, a. gliding swiftly (V.); -svâmin, -½uttama, -½udvaha, m. ep. of Râma.
m. [√ rug] infirmity, disease, sickness; diseased spot; -ghna, a. disease-destroying; -da, a. causing disease; -pâlaka, m. attendant on the sick; -prada, a. causing disease; -bhâg, a. suffering from a disease; -vairûpya, n. disfigurement through disease; -sama, m. convalescence; -sambaddha, pp. suffering from disease; -hrit, m. (destroyer of disease), physician; -½ârta, pp. afflicted with disease, sick; -½âvishta, pp. id.
n. [later form of rar&asharp;ta] fore head: -tata, m. flat surface of the forehead; -m-tapa, a. scorching the forehead (said of a hot sun), very painful; -patta, m.: -ka, m., -pattikâ, f. flat surface of the forehead; -phalaka, n. id.; -likhita, pp. written by fate on the forehead; -lekhâ, f. lines written by fate on the forehead; (strip of a =) very narrow forehead; -½aksha, a. (î) having an eye in the forehead (Siva).
m. plasterer, white-washer; writer, scribe; -karman, n. painting; -karma-nirmita, pp. painted; -nyâsa, m. act of writing; -phalaka, n. writing tablet; -sâlâ, f. writing school; -sâstra, n. art of writing.
pp. (√ rañg) estranged etc.: -prakriti, a. whose principal officers are dis affected, -bhâva, a. disaffected; -rakti, f. indifference, to (lc., upari w. g., prati w. ac.); freedom from worldlyattachment: -mat, a. indifferent, to (lc.); accompanied with free dom from worldly attachment; -rakanâ, f. disposition, embellishment: alakânâm --, neatly arranged locks; -rakayitavya, fp. to be made or formed; -rakita, pp. cs. √ rak: â, f. N.; (ví)-raga, a. free from dust, clean, pure (also fig.); free from passion; -ragas, a. id.; m. N.; -ragas-ka, a. dustless; -ragas karana, n. freeing from dust, cleansing; -ragî kri, free from dust, cleanse; -rañka, -rañki, -rañkya, m. ep. of Brahman; -rata, pp. (√ ram) ceased etc.: -tva, n. cessation; -rata-prasa&ndot;ga, a. having ceased from en gaging in (lc.); -rati, f. cessation; end; desistence or abstention from, renunciation of (ab., lc., --°ree;); -ratha, a. deprived of one's car; -rathî-kri, deprive any one of his chariot; -rathî-bhû, be deprived of one's car; -rapsá, a. (&isharp;) exuberant (RV.); m. abundance (RV.); -rapsín,a. exuberant, vigorous (V.); -rama, m. cessation, abate ment; sunset; abstention from (--°ree;); -rama- na, n. cessation; abstention from (--°ree;).
f. [√ sî: to be lain on] couch. bed (ord. mg.); lying, resting, sleeping: -gri- ha, n. bed-chamber; -pâlaka, m. guardian of a (royal) bed: -tva, n. office of guardian of the bed-chamber; -½âvâsa-vesman, n., -vesman, n. bed-chamber; -½âsana-bhoga, m. pl. lying down, sitting, or eating; -½ut thâyam, ad. on rising from one's couch, early in the morning; -½utsa&ndot;ga, m. surface of a couch.
m. C.: continuity, continu- ance; uninterrupted series, continuous flow; continuous train of thought (rare); lasting alliance (in which a daughter is given to one's ally; also -samdhi, m.); continuation of a family, offspring, progeny (also n.); V.: con nexion, transition (in recitation etc.); reti culated ligature, sinew: -ka, m. one of the five trees of paradise: -maya, a. (î) consist ing of the flowers of the Samtânaka tree; -tânam, abs. extending across; -tâpa, m. heat; pain, suffering, anguish, distress, at (lc.); remorse, repentance; penance (rare): -m kri, be distressed about (prati): -kârin, a. causing suffering; -tâpana, a. paining, afflicting;-tâpa-vat, a. afflicted with pain, sorrowful; -tâpa-hara, a. removing heat; -târa, m. crossing (water, g., --°ree;): -mûlaka, probably incorr.; -târya, fp. to be crossed (sea); to be got over (fig.).
a. saddled; -palâsa, a. covered with leaves (branch; Br., S.); -pâ da, a. together with a quarter: -laksha, m. or n. one hundred and twenty-five thousand; -pâla, a. attended by a herdsman; -pinda, a. sharing the funeral cake, related to any one (g.) as far as the sixth generation: -tâ, f. kinship as far as the sixth generation; -pind î-karana, n. turning into a Sapinda relative, admission to orperformance of the first Srâd dha after a death; -pitrika, a. together with the father or fathers; -pitri-râganya, a. to gether with the royal members among the fathers; -pidhâna, a. provided with a lid; -putra, a. together with one's son or children; -with the calf: -ka, a. (ikâ) together with one's little son, -dâra, a. with son and wife; -pulaka, a. bristling, thrilled: -m, ad.; -pushpa, a. flowering (tree); -pûrva, a. possessed by one's ancestors; together with the preceding letter.
a. having only libations of water (to ancestors) in common, distantly related: -bhâva, m. this kind of distant relationship; -½udarya, a. descended from the same mother; m.uterine brother; -upamâ, f. simile in which the common term though identical in sound must be interpreted in two senses (e. g. in &open;bâlâ½iva½udyânamâlâ sâlakânana-sobhinî&close; sâlakânana=sa½alaka½â nana and sâla-kânana).
Is the full style of a teacher, who is repeatedly referred to in the later Samhitās and Brāhmanas, and whose son was the famous Uddālaka Aruni. He was a pupil of Upaveśa, and a contemporary of the prince Aśvapati, by whom he was instructed. Cf. Aruna.
Is the patronymic normally referring to Uddālaka, son of Aruna Aupaveśi. Uddālaka is probably also meant by Aruni Yaśasvin, who occurs as a teacher of the Subrahmanyā (a kind of recitation) in the Jaiminīya Brāhmana. Arunis are referred to both in the Jaiminīya Upanisad Brāhmana and in the Kāthaka Samhitā, as well as in the Aitareya Aranyaka.
An epithet of śvetaketu his descent from Uddālaka Aruni and Aruna Aupaveśi. It is apparently confined to the śatapatha Brāhmana and Chāndogya Upani¬sad, in which śvetaketu plays a great part.
The Brāhmanas of the northern parts are referred to in the śatapatha Brāhmana as engaging, with Svaidāyana Saunaka as their spokesman, in a dispute with the Kurupañcāla Brāhmana Uddālaka Aruni, and as vanquishing him. Their relation to the Kurupañcālas appears also from the fact that in the same Brāhmana reference is made to the speech of the north being similar to that of the Kurupañcālas. The speech of the Northerners was also celebrated for purity; hence Brāhmanas used to go to the north for purposes of study, according to the Kausītaki Brāhmana, while in the Buddhist texts the school of Taksaśilā (in Gandhāra) is famous as a resort of students. Possibly, too, Sanskrit was specially developed in Kaśmīr, as suggested by Franke. See also Kuru.
Uddālaka, son of Aruna, is one of the most prominent teachers of the Vedic period. He was a Brāhmana of the Kurupañcālas, according to the śatapatha Brāhmana. This statement is confirmed by the fact that he was teacher of Proti Kausurubindi of Kauśāmbī, and that his son Svetaketu is found disputing among the Pañcālas. He was a pupil of Aruna, his father, as well as of Patañcala Kāpya, of Madra, while he was the teacher of the famous Yājñavalkya Vājasaneya and of Kausītaki, although the former is represented elsewhere as having silenced him. He overcame in argument Prācīnayogya śauceya, and apparently also Bhadrasena Ajāta- śatrava, though the text here seems to read the name as Arani. He was a Gautama, and is often alluded to as such. As an authority on questions of ritual and philosophy, he is repeatedly referred to by his patronymic name Aruni in the śatapatha Brāhmana, the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad, the Chāndogya Upanisad, and occasionally in the Aitareya, the Kausītaki, and the Sadvimśa Brāhmanas, as well as the Kausītaki Upanisad. In the Maitrāyanī Samhitā he is not mentioned, according to Geldner, but only his father Aruna; his name does not occur, according to Weber, in the Pañca¬vimśa Brāhmana, but in the Kāthaka Samhitā he is, as Aruni, known as a contemporary of Divodāsa Bhaimaseni, and in the Jaiminīya Upanisad Brāhmana he is mentioned as serving Vāsistha Caikitāneya. In the Taittirīya tradition he seldom appears. There is an allusion in the Taittirīya Samhitā to Kusurubinda Auddālaki, and according to the Taittirīya Brāhmana, Naciketas was a son of Vājaśravasa Gautama, who is made out to be Uddālaka by Sāyana. But the episode of Naciketas, being somewhat unreal, cannot be regarded as of historical value in proving relationship. Aruna is known to the Taittirīya Samhitā. A real son of Uddālaka was the famous śvetaketu, who is expressly reported by Apastamba to have been in his time an Avara or later authority, a statement of importance for the date of Aruni.
‘Seer,’ is primarily a composer of hymns to the gods. In the Rigveda reference is often made to previous singers and to contemporary poets. Old poems were inherited and refurbished by members of the composer’s family, but the great aim of the singers was to produce new and approved hymns. It is not till the time of the Brāhmanas that the composition of hymns appears to have fallen into disuse, though poetry was still produced, for example, in the form of Gāthās, which the priests were required to compose them¬selves and sing to the accompaniment of the lute at the sacrifice. The Rsi was the most exalted of Brāhmanas, and his skill, which is often compared with that of a carpenter, was regarded as heaven-sent. The Purohita, whether as Hotr or as Brahman (see Rtvij), was a singer. No doubt the Rsis were normally attached to the houses of the great, the petty kings of Vedic times, or the nobles of the royal household. Nor need it be doubted that occasionally the princes them¬selves essayed poetry: a Rājanyarsi, the prototype of the later Rājarsi or * royal seer,’ who appears in the Pañcavimśa Brāhmana, though he must be mythical as Oldenberg points out, indicates that kings cultivated poetry just as later they engaged in philosophic disputations. Normally, how¬ever, the poetical function is Brahminical, Viśāmitra and others not being kings, but merely Brāhmanas, in the Rigveda. In the later literature the Rsis are the poets of the hymns preserved in the Samhitās, a Rsi being regularly16 cited when a Vedic Samhitā is quoted. Moreover, the Rsis become the representatives of a sacred past, and are regarded as holy sages, whose deeds are narrated as if they were the deeds of gods or Asuras. They are typified by a particular group of seven, mentioned four times in the Rigveda, several times in the later Samhitās, and enumerated in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad as Gotama, Bharadvāja, Viśvāmitra, Jamadagni, Vasistha, Kaśyapa, and Atri. In the Rigveda itself Kutsa, Atri, Rebha, Agastya, the Kuśikas, Vasistha, Vyaśva, and others appear as Rsis; and the Atharvaveda contains a long list, including Añgiras, Agasti, Jamadagni, Atri, Kaśyapa, Vasistha, Bharadvāja, Gavisthira, Viśvāmitra, Kutsa, Kaksīvant, Kanva, Medhātithi, Triśoka, Uśanā Kāvya, Gotama, and Mudgala. Competition among the bards appears to have been known. This is one of the sides of the riddle poetry (Brahmodya) that forms a distinctive feature of the Vedic ritual of the Aśva¬medha, or horse sacrifice. In the Upanisad period such competitions were quite frequent. The most famous was that of Yājñavalkya, which was held at the court of Janaka of Videha, as detailed in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad, and which was a source of annoyance to Ajātaśatru of Kāśī. According to an analogous practice, a Brāhmana, like Uddālaka Aruni, would go about disputing with all he came across, and compete with them for a prize of money.
In the Atharvaveda mention is made of the Kālakāñjas as being in the sky. Both Roth and Zimmer hold that some constellation is meant. But as the defeat of the Kālakāñjas is one of Indra’s exploits, it is doubtful whether any stress can be laid on that interpretation of the passage in the Atharvaveda. Whitney suggests that the three stars of Orion are meant, Bloomfield that the galaxy or the stars in general are intended.
The name Kāśi denotes (in the plural1) the people of Kāśi (Benares), and Kāśya, the king of Kāśi. The Satapatha Brāhmana tells of Dhrtarāstra, king of Kāśi, who was defeated by Satānīka Sātrājita, with the result that the Kāśis, down to the time of the Brāhmana, gave up the kindling of the sacred fire. Sātrājita was a Bharata. We hear also of Ajātaśatru as a king of Kāśi; and no doubt Bhadrasena Ajātaśatrava, a contemporary of Uddālaka, was also a king of Kāśi. The Kāśis and Videhas were closely connected, as was natural in view of their geographical position. The compound name Kāśi-Videha occurs in the Kausītaki Upanisad; in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad Gārgī describes Ajātaśatru as either a Kāśi or a Videha king. The Sāñkhāyana Srauta Sūtra mentions one Purohita as acting for the kings of Kāśi, Kosala, and Videha; and the Baudhāyana śrauta Sūtra mentions Kāśi and Videha in close proximity. Weber,8 indeed, throws out the suggestion that the Kāśis and the Videhas together con¬stitute the Uśīnaras, whose name is very rare in Vedic literature. As Kosala and Videha were in close connexion, Kāśi and Kosala are found combined in the compound name Kāśi- Kauśalyas of the Gopatha Brāhmana. Though Kāśi is a late word, it is quite possible that the town is older, as the river Varanāvatī referred to in the Athar¬vaveda may be connected with the later Vārānasī (Benares).It is significant that while the Kāśis, Kosalas, and Videhas were united, any relations which the Kuru-Pañcala peoples may have had with them were hostile. It is a fair conclusion that between these two great groups of peoples there did exist some political conflict as well as probably a difference of culture in some degree. The śatapatha Brāhmana,11 in the story of the advance of Aryan civilization over Kosala and Videha, preserves a clear tradition of this time, and a piece of evidence that in the Kuru-Pañcāla country lay the real centre of the Brāhmana culture (see also Kuru-Pañcāla). That the Kosala-Videhas were originally settlers of older date than the Kuru-Pañcālas is reasonably obvious from their geographical position, but the true Brāhmana culture appears to have been brought to them from the Kuru-Pañcala country. It is very probable that the East was less Aryan than the West, and that it was less completely reduced under Brahmin spiritual supremacy, as the movement of Buddhism was Eastern, and the Buddhist texts reveal a position in which the Ksatriyas rank above Brāhmanas. With this agrees the fact that the later Vedic texts display towards the people of Magadha a marked antipathy, which may be reasonably explained by that people’s lack of orthodoxy, and which may perhaps be traced as far back as the Vājasaneyi Samhitā. It is, of course, possible that the Kosala-Videhas and Kāśis actually were merely offshoots of the tribes later known as the Kuru-Pañcālas, and that they by reason of distance and less complete subjugation of the aborigines lost their Brahminical culture. This hypothesis, however, appears less likely, though it might be supported by a literal inter-pretation of the legend of the Aryan migration in the śatapatha Brāhmana.
‘Descendant of Gotama,’ is a common patronymic, being applied to Aruna, Uddālaka Aruni, Kuśri, Sāti, Hāridrumata. Several Gautamas are mentioned in the Vamśas (lists of teachers) in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad as pupils of Agni- veśya, of Saitava and Prācīnayogya, of Saitava, of Bhārad- vaja, of Gautama, and of Vatsya. referred to elsewhere.
(* descendant of Sarkarāksa ’) is mentioned as a teacher in the śatapatha Brāhmana (x. 6, 1, 1. et seq.) and the Chāndogya Upanisad (v. 11, 1; 15, 1). He was a contemporary of Aśvapati Kaikeya, and of Aruna Aupaveśi and his son Uddālaka Aruni.
Occurs in the Atharvaveda and the Sūtras in the sense of ‘ net.’ Jālaka is used in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad of a reticulated membrane resembling a woven covering.
In the Atharvaveda and later denotes an ‘ant/ the form of the word referring doubtless not so much to the small species of ant, as it is taken in the later lexicons, but rather to the insect’s tiny size, which would naturally be expressed by a diminutive formation of the name. The form Pipīlaka is found in the Chāndogya Upanisad.
Is the name of one of the victims at the Puruṣa- medha (‘human sacrifice’) in the Yajurveda. The name also occurs in the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad as that of a despised race of men, together with the Cāndāla. The Maitrāyaηī Samhitā has the variant Puklaka or Pulkaka, clearly the same as Pulkasa, of which Paulkasa is a derivative form, showing that a caste is meant (cf Kaulāla, Pauñji§tha). In the accepted theory the Pulkasa is the son of a Niṣāda or śūdra by a Kṣatriya woman, but this is merely speculative; the Paulkasa may either have been a functional caste, or, as Fick5 believes, an aboriginal clan living by catching wild beasts, and only occasionally reduced to menial tasks.
(‘Descendant of Jīvala ’) is the name of a prince, contemporary with Uddālaka, who appears in the Upaniṣads as engaged in philosophical discussions. He is probably identical with the Jaivali of the Jaiminiya Upanisad Brāhmana.
(‘Descendant of Kusuru- binda’) is mentioned in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as a pupil and contemporary of Uddālaka. In the Taittirīya Sarphitā, on the other hand, Kusurubinda is called Auddālaki, ‘descendant of Uddālaka,’ a fact which seems to indicate that little value is to be attached to these patronymics and allegations of contemporaneousness.
Descendant of a Brahman' (i.e., of a priest), is found only a few times in the Rigveda, and mostly in its latest parts. In the Atharvaveda and later it is a very common word denoting ‘priest,’ and it appears in the quadruple division of the castes in the Purusa-sūkta (‘hymn of man’) of the Rigveda. It seems certain that in the Rigveda this Brāhmaṇa, or Brahmin, is already a separate caste, differing from the warrior and agricultural castes. The texts regularly claim for them a superiority to the Kṣatriya caste, and the Brahmin is able by his spells or manipulation of the rite to embroil the people and the warriors or the different sections of the warriors. If it is necessary to. recognize, as is sometimes done, that the Brahmin does pay homage to the king at the Rājasūya, nevertheless the unusual fact is carefully explained away so as to leave the priority of the Brahmin unaffected. But it is expressly recognized that the union of the Ksatriya and the Brāhmaṇa is essential for complete prosperity. It is admitted that the king or the nobles might at times oppress the Brahmins, but it is indicated that ruin is then certain swiftly to follow. The Brahmins are gods on earth, like the gods in heaven, but this claim is hardly found in the Rigveda. In the Aitareya Brāhmana the Brahmin is said to be the ‘ recipient of gifts * (ādāyt) and the * drinker of the offering ’ (āpāyT). The other two epithets applied, āvasāyī and yathā- kāma-prayāpya, are more obscure; the former denotes either ‘ dwelling everywhere ’ or ‘ seeking food ’; the latter is usually taken as * moving at pleasure,’ but it must rather allude to the power of the king to assign a place of residence to the Brahmin. In the śatapatha Brāhmana the prerogatives of the Brah¬min are summed up as Arcā, ‘honour’; Dāna, ‘gifts’; Aj'yeyatā,‘ freedom from oppression ’; and Avadhyatā, ‘ freedom from being killed.’ On the other hand, his duties are summed up as Brāhmanya, ‘ purity of descent’; Pratirūpa-caryā, ‘devotion of the duties of his caste’; and Loka-pakti, ‘the perfecting of people ’ (by teaching). ī. Respect paid to Brahmins. The texts are full of references to the civilities to be paid to the Brahmin. He is styled bhagavant, and is provided with good food and entertain¬ment wherever he goes. Indeed, his sanctity exempts him from any close inquiry into his real claim to Brahminhood according to the Pañcavimśa Brāhmana. Gifts to Brahmins. The Dānastuti (‘Praise of gifts’) is a recognized feature of the Rigveda, and the greed of the poets for Dakṣiṇās, or sacrificial fees, is notorious. Vedic texts themselves recognize that the literature thence resulting (Nārā- śamsī) was often false to please the donors. It was, however, a rule that Brahmins should not accept what had been refused by others; this indicates a keen sense of the danger of cheapening their wares. So exclusively theirs was the right to receive gifts that the Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa has to explain how Taranta and Purumīlha became able to accept gifts by composing a Rigvedic hymn. The exaggerations in the celebration of the gifts bestowed on the priests has the curious result of giving us a series of numerals of some interest (Daśan). In some passages certain gifts those of a horse or sheep are forbidden, but this rule was not, it is clear, generally observed. Immunities of Brahmins. The Brahmin claimed to be exempt from the ordinary exercise of the royal power. When a king gives all his land and what is on it to the priests, the gift does not cover the property of the Brahmin according to the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. The king censures all, but not the Brahmin, nor can he safely oppress any Brahmin other than an ignorant priest. An arbitrator (or a witness) must decide (or speak) for a Brahmin against a non-Brahmin in a legal dispute. The Brahmin’s proper food is the Soma, not Surā or Parisrut, and he is forbidden to eat certain forms of flesh. On the other hand, he alone is allowed to eat the remains of the sacrifice, for no one else is sufficiently holy to consume food which the gods have eaten. Moreover, though he cannot be a physician, he helps the physician by being beside him while he exercises his art. His wife and his cow are both sacred. 4.Legal Position of. Brahmins.—The Taittirīya Samhitā lays down a penalty of a hundred (the unit meant is unknown) for an insult to a Brahmin, and of a thousand for a blow ; but if his blood is drawn, the penalty is a spiritual one. The only real murder is the slaying of a Brahmin according to the śatapatha Brāhmana. The crime of slaying a Brahmin ranks above the sin of killing any other man, but below that of killing an embryo (bhrūna) in the Yajurveda ; the crime of slaying an embryo whose sex is uncertain is on a level with that of slaying a Brahmin. The murder of a Brahmin can be expiated only by the horse sacrifice, or by a lesser rite in the late Taittirīya Araṇyaka.The ritual slaying of a Brahmin is allowed in the later ceremonial, and hinted at in the curious legend of śunahśepa ; and a Purohita might be punished with death for treachery to his master. 5.Purity of Birth. The importance of pure descent is seeη in the stress laid on being a descendant of a Rṣi (ārseya). But, on the other hand, there are clear traces of another doctrine, which requires learning, and not physical descent, as the true criterion of Rsihood. In agreement with this is the fact that Satyakāma Jābāla was received as a pupil, though his parentage was unknown, his mother being a slave girl who had been connected with several men, and that in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa the ceremony on acceptance as a pupil required merely the name of the pupil. So Kavasa is taunted in the Rigveda Brāhmaṇas as being the son of a female slave (Dāsī), and Vatsa cleared himself of a similar imputation by a fire ordeal. Moreover, a very simple rite was adequate to remove doubts as to origin. In these circumstances it is doubtful whether much value attaches to the Pravara lists in which the ancestors of the priest were invoked at the beginning of the sacrifice by the Hotṛ and the Adhvaryu priests.66 Still, in many parts of the ritual the knowledge of two or more genera¬tions was needed, and in one ceremony ten ancestors who have drunk the Soma are required, but a literal performance of the rite is excused. Moreover, there are clear traces of ritual variations in schools, like those of the Vasisthas and the Viśvāmitras. 6. The Conduct of the Brahmin. The Brahmin was required to maintain a fair standard of excellence. He was to be kind to all and gentle, offering sacrifice and receiving gifts. Especial stress was laid on purity of speech ; thus Viśvan- tara’s excuse for excluding the Syaparnas from his retinue was their impure (apūtā) speech. Theirs was the craving for knowledge and the life of begging. False Brahmins are those who do not fulfil their duties (cf, Brahmabandhu). But the penances for breach of duty are, in the Sūtras, of a very light and unimportant character. 7. Brahminical Studies. The aim of the priest is to obtain pre-eminence in sacred knowledge (brahma-varcasam), as is stated in numerous passages of Vedic literature. Such distinction is not indeed confined to the Brahmin: the king has it also, but it is not really in a special manner appropriate to the Kṣatriya. Many ritual acts are specified as leading to Brahmavarcasa, but more stress is laid on the study of the sacred texts : the importance of such study is repeatedly insisted upon. The technical name for study is Svādhyāya : the śatapatha Brāhmana is eloquent upon its advantages, and it is asserted that the joy of the learned śrotriya, or ‘student,’ is equal to the highest joy possible. Nāka Maudgfalya held that study and the teaching of others were the true penance (tapas).7δ The object was the ‘ threefold knowledge’ (trayī vidyā), that of the Rc, Yajus, and Sāman, a student of all three Vedas being called tri-śukriya or tn-sukra, ‘thrice pure.’ Other objects of study are enumerated in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, in the Taittirīya Aranyaka, the Chāndogya Upanisad, etc. (See Itihāsa, Purāna; Gāthā, Nārāśamsī; Brahmodya; Anuśās- ana, Anuvyākhyāna, Anvākhyāna, Kalpa, Brāhmaria; Vidyā, Ksatravidyā, Devajanavidyā, Nakçatravidyā, Bhūta- vidyā, Sarpavidyā; Atharvāñgirasah, Daiva, Nidhi, Pitrya, Rāśi; Sūtra, etc.) Directions as to the exact place and time of study are given in the Taittirīya Araṇyaka and in the Sūtras. If study is carried on in the village, it is to be done silently (manasā); if outside, aloud (vācā).
Learning is expected even from persons not normally competent as teachers, such as the Carakas, who are recognized in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as possible sources of information. Here, too, may be mentioned the cases of Brahmins learning from princes, though their absolute value is doubtful, for the priests would naturally represent their patrons as interested in their sacred science: it is thus not necessary to see in these notices any real and independent study on the part of the Kṣatriyas. Yājñavalkya learnt from Janaka, Uddālaka Aruni and two other Brahmins from Pravāhaṇa Jaivali, Drptabālāki Gārgya from Ajātaśatru, and five Brahmins under the lead of Aruṇa from Aśvapati Kaikeya. A few notices show the real educators of thought: wandering scholars went through the country and engaged in disputes and discussions in which a prize was staked by the disputants. Moreover, kings like Janaka offered rewards to the most learned of the Brahmins; Ajātaśatru was jealous of his renown, and imitated his generosity. Again, learned women are several times mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas. A special form of disputation was the Brahmodya, for which there was a regular place at the Aśvamedha (‘ horse sacrifice ’) and at the Daśarātra (‘ ten-day festival,). The reward of learning was the gaining of the title of Kavi or Vipra, ‘ sage.’ 8. The Functions of the Brahmin. The Brahmin was required not merely to practise individual culture, but also to give others the advantage of his skill, either as a teacher or as a sacrificial priest, or as a Purohita. As a teacher the Brahmin has, of course, the special duty of instructing his own son in both study and sacrificial ritual. The texts give examples of this, such as Áruṇi and Svetaketu, or mythically Varuṇa and Bhṛgu. This fact also appears from some of the names in the Vamśa Brāhmana" of the Sāmaveda and the Vamśa (list of teachers) of the śāñkhāyana Áraṇyaka. On the other hand, these Vamśas and the Vamśas of the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa show that a father often preferred to let his son study under a famous teacher. The relation of pupil and teacher is described under Brahmacarya. A teacher might take several pupils, and he was bound to teach them with all his heart and soul. He was bound to reveal everything to his pupil, at any rate to one who was staying with him for a year (saηivatsara-vāsin), an expression which shows, as was natural, that a pupil might easily change teachers. But, nevertheless, certain cases of learning kept secret and only revealed to special persons are enumerated. The exact times and modes of teaching are elaborately laid down in the Sūtras, but not in the earlier texts. As priest the Brahmin operated in all the greater sacrifices; the simple domestic {grhya) rites could normally be performed without his help, but not the more important rites {śrauta). The number varied : the ritual literature requires sixteen priests to be employed at the greatest sacrifices (see Rtvij), but other rites could be accomplished with four, five, six, seven, or ten priests. Again, the Kauçītakins had a seventeenth priest beside the usual sixteen, the Sadasya, so called because he watched the performance from the Sadas, seat.’ In one rite, the Sattra (‘sacrificial session') of the serpents, the Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa, adds three more to the sixteen, a second Unnetṛ, an Abhigara, and an Apagara. The later ritual places the Brahman at the head of all the priests, but this is probably not the early view (see Brahman). The sacrifice ensured, if properly performed, primarily the advantages of the sacrificer (yajamāna), but the priest shared in the profit, besides securing the Daksiṇās. Disputes between sacrificers and the priests were not rare, as in the case of Viśvantara and the śyāparṇas, or Janamejaya and the Asitamrgras and the Aiçāvīras are referred to as undesirable priests. Moreover, Viśvāmitra once held the post of Purohita to Sudās, but gave place to Vasiṣtha. The position of Purohita differed considerably from that of the ordinary priest, for the Purohita not merely might officiate at the sacrifice, but was the officiator in all the private sacrifices of his king. Hence he could, and undoubtedly sometimes did, obtain great influence over his master in matters of secular importance; and the power of the priesthood in political as opposed to domestic and religious matters, no doubt rested on the Purohita. There is no recognition in Vedic literature of the rule later prevailing by which, after spending part of his life as a Brahma- cārin, and part as a householder, the Brahmin became an ascetic (later divided into the two stages of Vānaprastha, ‘forest-dweller,’ and Samnyāsin, ‘mystic ’). Yājñavalkya's case shows that study of the Absolute might empty life of all its content for the sage, and drive him to abandon wife and family. In Buddhist times the same phenomenon is seen applying to other than Brahmins. The Buddhist texts are here confirmed in some degree by the Greek authorities. The practice bears a certain resemblance to the habit of kings, in the Epic tradition,of retiring to the forest when active life is over. From the Greek authorities it also appears what is certainly the case in the Buddhist literature that Brahmins practised the most diverse occupations. It is difficult to say how far this was true for the Vedic period. The analogy of the Druids in some respects very close suggests that the Brahmins may have been mainly confined to their professional tasks, including all the learned professions such as astronomy and so forth. This is not contradicted by any Vedic evidence ; for instance, the poet of a hymn of the Rigveda says he is a poet, his father a physician (Bhiṣaj), and his mother a grinder of corn (Upala-prakṣiṇī). This would seem to show that a Brahmin could be a doctor, while his wife would perform the ordinary household duties. So a Purohita could perhaps take the field to assist the king by prayer, as Viśvāmitra, and later on Vasiṣtha do, but this does not show that priests normally fought. Nor do they seem normally to have been agriculturists or merchants. On the other hand, they kept cattle: a Brahmacarin’s duty was to watch his master’s cattle.129 It is therefore needless to suppose that they could not, and did not, on occasion turn to agricultural or mercan¬tile pursuits, as they certainly did later. But it must be remembered that in all probability there was more purity of blood, and less pressure of life, among the Brahmins of the Vedic age than later in Buddhist times, when the Vedic sacrificial apparatus was falling into grave disrepute. It is clear that the Brahmins, whatever their defects, represented the intellectual side of Vedic life, and that the Kṣatriyas, if they played a part in that life, did so only in a secondary degree, and to a minor extent. It is natural to suppose that the Brahmins also composed ballads, the precursors of the epic; for though none such have survived, a few stanzas of this character, celebrating the generosity of patrons, have been preserved by being embedded in priestly compositions. A legend in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa shows clearly that the Brahmins regarded civilization as being spread by them only: Kosala and Videha, no doubt settled by Aryan tribes, are only rendered civilized and habitable by the influence of pious Brahmins. We need not doubt that the non-Brahminical tribes (see Vrātya) had attained intellectual as well as material civilization, but it is reasonable to assume that their civilization was inferior to that of the Brahmins, for the history of Hinduism is the conquest by the Brahmins not by arms, but by mind of the tribes Aryan and non-Aryan originally beyond the pale.
‘Descendant of Bharadvāja is the patronymic of many teachers. In the Vaṃśas (lists of teachers) of the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad, Bhāradvājas are mentioned as pupils of Bhāradvāj'a, Pārāśarya, Balākākauśika, Aitareya, Asurāyaṇa, and Ba\javāpāyana.β A Bhāradvāja occurs in the Rigveda, and śūça Vālmeya is mentioned as a Bhāradvāja in the Vamśa Brāhmana.
The ‘Middle Country,’ is, according to the Mānava Dharma śāstra, the land between the Himālaya in the north, the Vindhya in the south, Vinaáana in the west, and Prayāga (now Allahabad) in the east that is, between the place where the Sarasvatī disappears in the desert, and the point of the confluence of the Yamunā (Jumna) and the Gañgā (Ganges). The same authority defines Brahmarsi-deśa as denoting the land of Kuruksetra, the Matsyas, Pañcālas, and śūrasenakas, and Brahmāvarta as meaning the particularly holy land between the Sarasvatī and the Drṣadvatī. The Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtra4 defines Áryāvarta as the land east of Vinaśana; west of the Kālaka-vana, ‘ Black Forest,’ or rather Kanakhala, near Hardvār; south of the Himālaya; and north of the Pāriyātra or the Pāripātra Mountains; adding that, in the opinion of others, it was confined to the country between the Yamunā and the Gañgā, while the Bhāllavins took it as the country between the boundary-river (or perhaps the Saras-vatī) and the region where the sun rises. The Mānava Dharma śāstra, in accord with the Vasiṣṭha Dharma Sūtra, defines Áryāvarta as the region between the Vindhya and the Himālaya, the two ranges which seem to be the boundaries of the Aryan world in the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad also. The term Madhyadeśa is not Vedic, but it is represented in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa by the expression madhyamā pratisthā diś, ‘ the middle fixed region,’ the inhabitants of which are stated to be the Kurus, the Pañcālas, the Vaśas, and the Uśīnaras. The latter two peoples practically disappear later on, the Madhyadeśa being the country of the Kuru-Pañcālas, the land where the Brāhmaṇas and the later Samhitās were produced, bounded on the east by the Kosala-Videhas, and on the west by the desert. The western tribes are mentioned with disapproval both in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, while the tradition of the Brahminization of the Kosalas and the Videhas from the Kuru-Pañcāla country is preserved in the former Brāhmaṇa.
‘Descendant of Yajñavalkya,’ is repeatedly mentioned in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as an authority on questions of ritual. He is, however, also given as an authority on questions of philosophy in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanisad, but Oldenberg is, no doubt, right in thinking that no possible importance can be attached to the mention of Yājñavalkya in the latter capacity. He is said to have been a pupil of Uddālaka Arum, whom he opposed successfully in a dispute.5 His two wives, Maitreyī and Kātyāyanī, are mentioned in the Brhadāraṇyaka Upanisad, which concludes with a passage ascribing to Yājñavalkya Vājasaneya the ‘white Yajus ’ {śuklāni yajUmsi). It is remarkable that Yājñavalkya is never mentioned in any other Vedic text outside the śatapatha Brāhmana y except the śāñkhāyana Aranyaka, where, however, both/\ references are merely transcripts from the śatapatha. It has been supposed by Oldenberg10 and others that Yājñavalkya belonged to Videha, but despite the legend of Janaka’s patronage of him, his association with Uddālaka, the Kuru-Pañcāla, renders this doubtful.
(lit. ‘colour’) In the Rigveda is applied to denote classes of men, the Dāsa and the Aryan Varṇa being contrasted, as other passages show, on account of colour. But this use is confined to distinguishing two colours: in this respect the Rigveda differs fundamentally from the later Samhitās and Brāhmaṇas, where the four castes (varnūh) are already fully recognized. (a) Caste in the Rigveda.—The use of the term Varṇa is not, of course, conclusive for the question whether caste existed in the Rigveda. In one sense it must be admitted to have existed: the Puruṣa-sūkta, ‘hymn of man,’ in the tenth Maṇdala clearly contemplates the division of mankind into four classes—the Brāhmaṇa, Rājanya, Vaiśya, and śūdra. But the hymn being admittedly late,6 its evidence is not cogent for the bulk of the Rigveda.' Zimmer has with great force com- batted the view that the Rigveda was produced in a society that knew the caste system. He points out that the Brāhmaṇas show us the Vedic Indians on the Indus as unbrah- minized, and not under the caste system; he argues that the Rigveda was the product of tribes living in the Indus region and the Panjab; later on a part of this people, who had wandered farther east, developed the peculiar civilization of the caste system. He adopts the arguments of Muir, derived from the study of the data of the Rigveda, viz.: that (a) the four castes appear only in the late Purusasūkta; (6) the term Varṇa, as shown above, covers the three highest castes of later times, and is only contrasted with Dāsa; (c) that Brāhmaṇa is rare in the Rigveda, Kṣatriya occurs seldom, Rājanya only in the Purusasūkta, where too, alone, Vaiśya and śūdra are found; (d) that Brahman denotes at first ‘poet,’ ‘sage,’ and then ‘ officiating priest,’ or still later a special class of priest; (e) that in some only of the passages where it occurs does Brahman denote a ‘priest by profession,’ while in others it denotes something peculiar to the individual, designating a person distinguished for genius or virtue, or specially chosen to receive divine inspiration. Brāhmaṇa, on the other hand, as Muir admits, already denotes a hereditary professional priesthood. Zimmer connects the change from the casteless system of the Rigveda to the elaborate system of the Yajurveda with the advance of the Vedic Indians to the east, comparing the Ger¬manic invasions that transformed the German tribes into monarchies closely allied with the church. The needs of a conquering people evoke the monarch; the lesser princes sink to the position of nobles ; for repelling the attacks of aborigines or of other Aryan tribes, and for quelling the revolts of the subdued population, the state requires a standing army in the shape of the armed retainers of the king, and beside the nobility of the lesser princes arises that of the king’s chief retainers, as the Thegns supplemented the Gesiths of the Anglo-Saxon monarchies. At the same time the people ceased to take part in military matters, and under climatic influences left the conduct of war to the nobility and their retainers, devoting themselves to agriculture, pastoral pursuits, and trade. But the advantage won by the nobles over the people was shared by them with the priesthood, the origin of whose power lies in the Purohitaship, as Roth first saw. Originally the prince could sacrifice for himself and the people, but the Rigveda itself shows cases, like those of Viśvāmitra and Vasiçtha illustrating forcibly the power of the Purohita, though at the same time the right of the noble to act as Purohita is seen in the case of Devāpi Arṣtisena.le The Brahmins saw their opportunity, through the Purohitaship, of gaining practical power during the confusion and difficulties of the wars of invasion, and secured it, though only after many struggles, the traces of which are seen in the Epic tradition. The Atharvaveda also preserves relics of these conflicts in its narration of the ruin of the Spñjayas because of oppressing Brahmins, and besides other hymns of the Atharvaveda, the śatarudriya litany of the Yajurveda reflects the period of storm and stress when the aboriginal population was still seething with discontent, and Rudra was worshipped as the patron god of all sorts of evil doers. This version of the development of caste has received a good deal of acceptance in it's main outlines, and it may almost be regarded as the recognized version. It has, however, always been opposed by some scholars, such as Haug, Kern, Ludwig, and more recently by Oldenberg25 and by Geldner.25 The matter may be to some extent simplified by recognizing at once that the caste system is one that has progressively developed, and that it is not legitimate to see in the Rigveda the full caste system even of the Yajurveda; but at the same time it is difficult to doubt that the system was already well on its way to general acceptance. The argument from the non- brahminical character of the Vrātyas of the Indus and Panjab loses its force when it is remembered that there is much evidence in favour of placing the composition of the bulk of the Rigveda, especially the books in which Sudās appears with Vasiṣṭha and Viśvāmitra, in the east, the later Madhyadeśa, a view supported by Pischel, Geldner, Hopkins,30 and Mac¬donell.81 Nor is it possible to maintain that Brahman in the Rigveda merely means a ‘poet or sage.’ It is admitted by Muir that in some passages it must mean a hereditary profession ; in fact, there is not a single passage in which it occurs where the sense of priest is not allowable, since the priest was of course the singer. Moreover, there are traces in the Rigveda of the threefold or fourfold division of the people into brahma, ksafram, and vitofi, or into the three classes and the servile population. Nor even in respect to the later period, any more than to the Rigveda, is the view correct that regards the Vaiśyas as not taking part in war. The Rigveda evidently knows of no restriction of war to a nobility and its retainers, but the late Atharvaveda equally classes the folk with the bala, power,’ representing the Viś as associated with the Sabhā, Samiti, and Senā, the assemblies of the people and the armed host. Zimmer explains these references as due to tradition only; but this is hardly a legitimate argument, resting, as it does, on the false assumption that only a Kṣatriya can fight. But it is (see Kçatriya) very doubtful whether Kṣatriya means anything more than a member of the nobility, though later, in the Epic, it included the retainers of the nobility, who increased in numbers with the growth of military monarchies, and though later the ordinary people did not necessarily take part in wars, an abstention that is, however, much exaggerated if it is treated as an absolute one. The Kṣatriyas were no doubt a hereditary body; monarchy was already hereditary (see Rājan), and it is admitted that the śūdras were a separate body: thus all the elements of the caste system were already in existence. The Purohita, indeed, was a person of great importance, but it is clear, as Oldenberg37 urges, that he was not the creator of the power of the priesthood, but owed his position, and the influence he could in consequence exert, to the fact that the sacrifice required for its proper performance the aid of a hereditary priest in whose possession was the traditional sacred knowledge. Nor can any argument for the non-existence of the caste system be derived from cases like that of Devāpi. For, in the first place, the Upaniṣads show kings in the exercise of the priestly functions of learning and teaching, and the Upaniṣads are certainly contemporaneous with an elaborated caste system. In the second place the Rigvedic evidence is very weak, for Devāpi, who certainly acts as Purohita, is not stated in the Rigveda to be a prince at all, though Yāska calls him a Kauravya; the hymns attributed to kings and others cannot be vindicated for them by certain evidence, though here, again, the Brāhmaṇas do not scruple to recognize Rājanyarṣis, or royal sages’; and the famous Viśvāmitra shows in the Rigveda no sign of the royal character which the Brāhmaṇas insist on fastening on him in the shape of royal descent in the line of Jahnu. (6) Caste in the later Samhitās and Brāhmanas. The relation between the later and the earlier periods of the Vedic history of caste must probably be regarded in the main as the hardening of a system already formed by the time of the Rigveda. etc. Three castes Brāhmaṇa, Rājan, śūdraare mentioned in the Atharvaveda, and two castes are repeatedly mentioned together, either Brahman and Kṣatra, or Kṣatra and Viś. 2.The Relation of the Castes. The ritual literature is full of minute differences respecting the castes. Thus, for example, the śatapatha prescribes different sizes of funeral mounds for the four castes. Different modes of address are laid down for the four castes, as ehi, approach ’; āgaccha, ‘come’; ādrava, run up ’; ādhāva, hasten up,’ which differ in degrees of politeness. The representatives of the four castes are dedicated at the Puruṣamedha (‘human sacrifice’) to different deities. The Sūtras have many similar rules. But the three upper castes in some respects differ markedly from the fourth, the śūdras. The latter are in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa declared not fit to be addressed by a Dīkṣita, consecrated person,’ and no śūdra is to milk the cow whose milk is to be used for the Agnihotra ('fire-oblation’). On the other hand, in certain passages, the śūdra is given a place in the Soma sacrifice, and in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa there are given formulas for the placing of the sacrificial fire not only for the three upper castes, but also for the Rathakāra, chariot-maker.’ Again, in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, the Brāhmaṇa is opposed as eater of the oblation to the members of the other three castes. The characteristics of the several castes are given under Brāhmaṇa, Kçatriya and Rājan, Vaiśya, śūdra: they may be briefly summed up as follows : The Viś forms the basis of the state on which the Brahman and Kṣatra rest;®3 the Brahman and Kṣatra are superior to the Viś j®4 while all three classes are superior to the śūdras. The real power of the state rested with the king and his nobles, with their retainers, who may be deemed the Kṣatriya element. Engaged in the business of the protection of the country, its administration, the decision of legal cases, and in war, the nobles subsisted, no doubt, on the revenues in kind levied from the people, the king granting to them villages (see Grāma) for their maintenance, while some of them, no doubt, had lands of their own cultivated for them by slaves or by tenants. The states were seemingly small there are no clear signs of any really large kingdoms, despite the mention of Mahārājas. The people, engaged in agriculture, pastoral pursuits, and trade (Vaṇij), paid tribute to the king and nobles for the protection afforded them. That, as Baden- Powell suggests, they were not themselves agriculturists is probably erroneous; some might be landowners on a large scale, and draw their revenues from śūdra tenants, or even Aryan tenants, but that the people as a whole were in this position is extremely unlikely. In war the people shared the conflicts of the nobles, for there was not yet any absolute separation of the functions of the several classes. The priests may be divided into two classes the Purohitas of the kings, who guided their employers by their counsel, and were in a position to acquire great influence in the state, as it is evident they actually did, and the ordinary priests who led quiet lives, except when they were engaged on some great festival of a king or a wealthy noble. The relations and functions of the castes are well summed up in a passage of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, which treats of them as opposed to the Kṣatriya. The Brāhmaṇa is a receiver of gifts (ā-dāyī), a drinker of Soma (ā-pāyī), a seeker of food (āvasāyī), and liable to removal at will (yathākāma-prayāpyaīi).n The Vaiśya is tributary to another (anyasya balikrt), to be lived on by another (anyasyādyal}), and to be oppressed at will (yathā- kāma-jyeyal}). The śūdra is the servant of another (anyasya j>resyah), to be expelled at will (kāmotthāpyah), and to be slain at pleasure {yathākāma-vadhyah). The descriptions seem calculated to show the relation of each of the castes to the Rājanya. Even the Brāhmaṇa he can control, whilst the Vaiśya is his inferior and tributary, whom he can remove without cause from his land, but who is still free, and whom he cannot maim or slay without due process. The śūdra has no rights of property or life against the noble, especially the king. The passage is a late one, and the high place of the Kṣatriya is to some extent accounted for by this fact. It is clear that in the course of time the Vaiśya fell more and more in position with the hardening of the divisions of caste. Weber shows reason for believing that the Vājapeya sacrifice, a festival of which a chariot race forms an integral part, was, as the śāñkhāyana śrauta Sūtra says, once a sacrifice for a Vaiśya, as well as for a priest or king. But the king, too, had to suffer diminution of his influence at the hands of the priest: the Taittirīya texts show that the Vājapeya was originally a lesser sacrifice which, in the case of a king, was followed by the Rājasūya, or consecration of him as an overlord of lesser kings, and in that of the Brahmin by the Bṛhaspatisava, a festival celebrated on his appointment as a royal Purohita. But the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa exalts the Vājapeya, in which a priest could be the sacrificer, over the Rājasūya, from which he was excluded, and identifies it with the Bṛhaspatisava, a clear piece of juggling in the interests of the priestly pretentions. But we must not overestimate the value of such passages, or the exaltation of the Purohita in the later books of the śatapatha and Aitareya Brāhmanas as evidence of a real growth in the priestly power: these books represent the views of the priests of what their own powers should be, and to some extent were in the Madhyadeśa. Another side of the picture is presented in the Pāli literature, which, belonging to a later period than the Vedic, undoubtedly underestimates the position of the priests ; while the Epic, more nearly contemporaneous with the later Vedic period, displays, despite all priestly redaction, the temporal superiority of the nobility in clear light. Although clear distinctions were made between the different castes, there is little trace in Vedic literature of one of the leading characteristics of the later system, the impurity communicated by the touch or contact of the inferior castes, which is seen both directly in the purification rendered necessary in case of contact with a śūdra, and indirectly in the prohibition of eating in company with men of lower caste. It is true that prohibition of eating in company with others does appear, but hot in connexion with caste: its purpose is to preserve the peculiar sanctity of those who perform a certain rite or believe in a certain doctrine; for persons who eat of the same food together, according to primitive thought, acquire the same characteristics and enter into a sacramental communion. But Vedic literature does not yet show that to take food from an inferior caste was forbidden as destroying purity. Nor, of course, has the caste system developed the constitution with a head, a council, and common festivals which the modern caste has; for such an organization is not found even in the Epic or in the Pāli literature. The Vedic characteristics of caste are heredity, pursuit of a common occupation, and restriction on intermarriage. 3. Restrictions on Intermarriage. Arrian, in his Indica, probably on the authority of Megasthenes, makes the prohibi¬tion of marriage between <γevη, no doubt castes,’ a characteristic of Indian life. The evidence of Pāli literature is in favour of this view, though it shows that a king could marry whom he wished, and could make his son by that wife the heir apparent. But it equally shows that there were others who held that not the father’s but the mother’s rank determined the social standing of the son. Though Manu recognizes the possibility of marriage with the next lower caste as producing legitimate children, still he condemns the marriage of an Aryan with a woman of lower caste. The Pāraskara Gṛhya Sūtra allows the marriage of a Kṣatriya with a wife of his own caste or of the lower caste, of a Brahmin with a wife of his own caste or of the two lower classes, and of a Vaiśya with a Vaiśya wife only. But it quotes the opinion of others that all of them can marry a śūdra wife, while other authorities condemn the marriage with a śūdra wife in certain circumstances, which implies that in other cases it might be justified. The earlier literature bears out this impression: much stress is laid on descent from a Rṣi, and on purity of descent ; but there is other evidence for the view that even a Brāhmaṇa need not be of pure lineage. Kavaṣa Ailūṣa is taunted with being the son of a Dāsī, ‘slave woman,’ and Vatsa was accused of being a śūdrā’s son, but established his purity by walking unhurt through the flames of a fire ordeal. He who is learned (śiiśruvān) is said to be a Brāhmaṇa, descended from a Rṣi (1ārseya), in the Taittirīya Samhitā; and Satyakāma, son of Jabālā, was accepted as a pupil by Hāridrumata Gautama, though he could not name his father. The Kāthaka Samhitā says that knowledge is all-important, not descent. But all this merely goes to show that there was a measure of laxity in the hereditary character of caste, not that it was not based on heredity. The Yajurveda Samhitās recognize the illicit union of Árya and śūdrā, and vice versa: it is not unlikely that if illicit unions took place, legal marriage was quite possible. The Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa, indeed, recognizes such a case in that of Dīrghatamas, son of the slave girl Uśij, if we may adopt the description of Uśij given in the Brhaddevatā. In a hymn of the Atharvaveda extreme claims are put forward for the Brāhmaṇa, who alone is a true husband and the real husband, even if the woman has had others, a Rājanya or a Vaiśya: a śūdra Husband is not mentioned, probably on purpose. The marriage of Brāhmaṇas with Rājanya women is illustrated by the cases of Sukanyā, daughter of king śaryāta, who married Cyavana, and of Rathaviti’s daughter, who married śyāvāśva. 4.Occupation and Caste.—The Greek authorities and the evidence of the Jātakas concur in showing it to have been the general rule that each caste was confined to its own occupations, but that the Brāhmaṇas did engage in many professions beside that of simple priest, while all castes gave members to the śramaṇas, or homeless ascetics. The Jātakas recognize the Brahmins as engaged in all sorts of occupations, as merchants, traders, agriculturists, and so forth. Matters are somewhat simpler in Vedic literature, where the Brāhmaṇas and Kṣatriyas appear as practically confined to their own professions of sacrifice and military or administrative functions. Ludwig sees in Dīrgliaśravas in the Rigveda a Brahmin reduced by indigence to acting as a merchant, as allowed even later by the Sūtra literature; but this is not certain, though it is perfectly possible. More interesting is the question how far the Ksatriyas practised the duties of priests; the evidence here is conflicting. The best known case is, of course, that of Viśvāmitra. In the Rigveda he appears merely as a priest who is attached to the court of Sudās, king of the Tftsus ; but in the Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa he is called a king, a descendant of Jahnu, and the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa refers to śunahśepa’s succeeding, through his adoption by Viśvāmitra, to the divine lore (daiva veda) of the Gāthins and the lordship of the Jahnus. That in fact this tradition is correct seems most improbable, but it serves at least to illustrate the existence of seers of royal origin. Such figures appear more than once in the Pañcavimśa Brāhmana, which knows the technical terms Rājanyarçi and Devarājan corresponding to the later Rājarṣi, royal sage.’ The Jaiminiya Brāhmaṇa says of one who knows a certain doctrine, ‘being a king he becomes a seer’ (rājā sann rsir bhavati), and the Jaiminiya Upanisad Brāhmana applies the term Rāj'anya to a Brāhmaṇa. Again, it is argued that Devāpi Árstiseṇa, who acted as Purohita, according to the Rigveda, for śantanu, was a prince, as Yāska says or implies he was. But this assumption seems to be only an error of Yāska’s. Since nothing in the Rigveda alludes to any relationship, it is impossible to accept Sieg’s view that the Rigveda recognizes the two as brothers, but presents the fact of a prince acting the part of Purohita as unusual and requiring explanation. The principle, however, thus accepted by Sieg as to princes in the Rigveda seems sound enough. Again, Muir has argued that Hindu tradition, as shown in Sāyaṇa, regards many hymns of the Rigveda as composed by royal personages, but he admits that in many cases the ascription is wrong; it may be added that in the case of Prthī Vainya, where the hymn ascribed to him seems to be his, it is not shown in the hymn itself that he is other than a seer; the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa calls him a king, but that is probably of no more value than the later tradition as to Viśvāmitra. The case of Viśvantara and the śyāparṇas mentioned in the Aitareya Brāhma
